Norms, convergent validity, test-retest reliability, and practice effects for verbal fluency overall performance, clustering, and switching in Spanish-speaking children.

OBJECTIVE: We conducted two empirical studies (in a cross-sectional and a longitudinal design) with the aim at establishing normative data (including norms for strategy use [i.e., clustering and switching strategies] and performance over time), and examining the convergent validity, the test-retest reliability (3-4 wks interval) and the changes in performance with practice (1 year interval) of the different verbal fluency (VF) quantitative and qualitative scores in Spanish-speaking children and adolescents. METHOD: In S1 (n = 620 6- to 15-year-old Spanish-speaking children and adolescents), MANCOVA and Pearson's correlations were employed. In S2 (n = 148 6- to 12-year-old Spanish-speaking children), intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), paired t-tests, and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) were used. RESULTS: S1 results showed an age effect on all VF measures (quantitative and qualitative). The number of switches/clusters was more related to total word productivity and to executive functions (EF) than the mean cluster size. In S2, a significant increase in phonological VF performance was observed on number of switches and word productivity scores from baseline (Time 1) to repeat testing at Time 2. Practice effects were observed at Time 3 on all measures except for semantic and phonological mean cluster size. Test-retest reliability coefficients at Time 2 for number of clusters and switches, but not for mean cluster size, fell in the moderate range, ranging from ICCs .61 to ICCs .81. Test-retest reliability coefficients for total word productivity were higher (ICCs above .80) and stronger when testing as a unity with CFA methods (ϕ=.94, p < .001). CONCLUSIONS: These data may be relevant for informing the neuropsychological assessment of spontaneous cognitive flexibility in children with typical development (TD) and those with developmental or acquired disorders.

Parental Skills and Academic Competences in School Children: The Mediator Role of Executive Functions

Abstract The role of parenting in the development of children's learning constitutes, at present, part of the discussion in the psychoeducational field. Although parental competences (PC) and executive functions (EF) have been investigated by psychology and neuropsychology, their relationship with academic competences remains to be fully studied. The aim of this investigation was to analyze the effect of PC perceived by parents on behavioral EF and performance-based measures of reading and mathematical competences in children. We worked with 131 school children of both sexes, between 9 and 11 years old, and their respective parents. Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) and structural equation model (SEM) were used. The results indicate that parental skills from the parents' perspective have a significant effect on EF, reading, and mathematical skills. However, the best fit model indicates that EFs mediate the relationship between parenting skills and reading and math skills.

Resumen El rol parental en el desarrollo del aprendizaje de los niños constituye, en el presente, una parte de la discusión en el campo psicoeducativo. Aunque las competencias parentales (PC) y las funciones ejecutivas (EF) han sido investigadas por la psicología y la neuropsicología, su relación con las competencias académicas permanece abierta para ser estudiada a profundidad. El objetivo de esta investigación es analizar el efecto de los PC percibidos por los padres en EF comportamentales y las mediciones basadas en el desempeño de las competencias lectoras y matemáticas en niños. Trabajamos con 131 niños y niñas de colegio, entre 9 y 11 años, y sus padres. Se hizo uso del Análisis Multivarial de Variación (MANOVA) y el modelo de ecuación estructural (SEM). Los resultados indican que las habilidades parentales desde la perspectiva de los padres poseen un efecto significativo en las EF, la lectura y las habilidades matemáticas. De forma que los modelos mejor ajustados indican que las EFs median la relación entre las habilidades parentales, lectoras y matemáticas.

Coping Strategies and Social Skills of School-Aged Children: Association with Performance-Based Measures and Behavioral Ratings of Executive Function.

The aim of the present study was to analyze the association of executive function (EF) based on performance-based measures and behavioral ratings (Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-2 [BRIEF-2]) with coping and social skills in children. To this end, we first examined the structure of EF based on performance-based measures in a Chilean sample of 275 girls and boys aged 8-12 years. Confirmatory factor analysis showed the best fit for the three-factor solution, with (1) working memory, (2) cognitive flexibility, and (3) inhibition as separate but related components. Selective associations were found between EF and coping and social skills, with differences according to the assessment method for EF. Specifically, only inhibitory control was related to the constructs when EF was assessed based on the performance-based measures. Meanwhile, EF assessed based on the behavioral ratings, including all dimensions of the BRIEF-2, were selectively associated with coping and social skills, mainly when the evaluation was performed by the teachers. Finally, structural equation models (SEM) showed that inhibitory control had direct effects on coping and social skills. However, when EF was assessed based on ratings, differences were observed between the teachers' and parents' reports. These results reveal the varying effects of EF on coping and social skills depending not only on the modality of assessment but also on the informant, emphasizing the relevance of comprehensive EF evaluation; they also provide relevant information regarding the relationship between EF and coping and social skills in children.

Adult Executive Functioning Inventory (ADEXI): Factor structure, convergent validity, and reliability of a Spanish adaptation.

Although there are several ratings to assess Executive Functions (EF) in adults, most of these are lengthy and comprise items which describe extreme or pathologic behaviors (e.g., ADHD symptoms), proving inadequate for the assessment of EF in general population. The Adult Executive Functioning Inventory (ADEXI) seeks to assess EF taking these limitations into account. The aims of the present study were to analyze the factor structure, the convergent and divergent validity, and the reliability of a Spanish adaptation of the ADEXI in a non-clinical population. The Spanish adaptation of the ADEXI, the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), the Cognitive Flexibility Scale (CFS), and an adaptation of the Aggression Scale (AS) were administered to 369 healthy adults between 18 and 60-years-old. To analyze the factor structure of the ADEXI, Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was used. In addition, the relationship between the inventory and the IRI, the CFS and the AS was analyzed. Finally, Cronbach's α index was calculated. CFA showed that the two-factor model including (1) Working memory and (2) Inhibition best fit the data. Significant correlations were found between the ADEXI scores and the CFS, the IRI and the AS, providing additional evidence of construct validity. The internal consistency of the ADEXI was high (α = 0.87). Taken together, our results indicate that the Spanish adaptation of the ADEXI shows satisfactory psychometric properties and would be a valid and reliable measure to assess EF in non-clinical populations both for clinical and research purposes.

Convergent validity, academic correlates and age- and SES-based normative data for the d2 Test of attention in children.

The d2, test of attention is one of the most used neuropsychological tests to measure attention in clinical and research settings. To date, no studies have examined neither its convergent and divergent validity in children nor its relationship with academic skills at school age. The aims of the present study were: (1) to examine the convergent and divergent validity of the d2 Test in a non-clinical pediatric population, (2) to explore the relationship between d2 task performance and academic skills (i.e., math, reading and writing abilities) and (3) to develop normative data for Spanish-speaking children (n = 360 8- to 12-year-old children) stratified by age and socioeconomic status (SES). Pearson's correlation and Structural Equation Models (SEM) were used to analyze the d2 Test validity and its relationship with academic skills. A between-subjects factorial MANOVA was used to examine differences among SES (Middle, Low), age (8-10, 11-12), and sex (male, female). Findings revealed a significant relationship between d2 task performance and all attention and executive functions (EF) measures under analysis providing evidence of good convergent validity. Furthermore, SEM results showed that attention has direct effects on math and reading and writing skills. Finally, our study confirms the influence of age and SES on d2 task performance and provides normative data for middle- and low-SES children. These results have important implications for the assessment of attention functions in clinical and research settings in children with typical and atypical development.

The Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI) Parent and Teacher Form: Factor Structure and Cognitive Correlates in Spanish-speaking Children from Argentina.

The aims of the present study were: (1) to explore the CHEXI factor structure parent (n = 183) and teacher (n = 206) forms in Spanish-speaking children aged 6 to 11  years, (2) to analyze the relationship between parent- and teacher-rated data and performance-based measures of EF (including working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility tasks) and academic achievement and (3) to examine the association between parents and teachers reports. Confirmatory Factor analysis (CFA) showed that the two-factor model including (1) Working memory and (2) Inhibition best fit the data. McDonald's Omega coefficient was adequate for both the total parents (ω = .98). and teachers' (ω = .98) scales. In addition, low and selective associations were found between performance and rater-based assessments. However, stronger associations were observed between CHEXI and academic performance with differences according to the informant (parents vs. teachers). Finally, low correlations were found between parents and teachers reports. Taken together, our results suggest that the CHEXI is a reliable measure to assess EF in Argentinean Spanish-speaking children, supporting existing evidence that proposes that ratings and performance-based measures would assess different underlying mental constructs. Clinical and educational implications for considering both perspectives during neuropsychological assessment, further including parent- and teacher-rated reports are discussed.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the BRIEF-2 Parent and Teacher Form: Relationship to Performance-Based Measures of Executive Functions and Academic Achievement.

We conducted two empirical studies to (1) explore the dimensionality of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-2 (BRIEF-2) parent and teacher forms, (2) examine the association between the parent and teacher reports, and (3) analyze the relationship between the BRIEF-2 ratings and performance-based measures of executive functions (EFs) (including working memory, inhibition, and shifting tasks) and academic achievement in children. In Study 1 (n = 212 parents; n = 111 teachers), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that a three-factor solution that included the indices of (1) behavior regulation, (2) emotion regulation, and (3) cognitive regulation best fit the data. In Study 2 (n = 275 8- to 12-year-old Spanish-speaking children), selective and low correlations were found between performance- and rater-based measures of EFs. In addition, low to moderate correlations were found between parent and teacher reports. However, the three indices of both forms of the BRIEF-2 were associated with the diverse academic domains analyzed, although differences emerged depending on the informant (teacher vs. parent). Our results support the hypothesis that the two EF measures document different underlying processes. The clinical and educational implications of considering both perspectives in the assessment of EFs in children with typical development and in children with neurodevelopmental disorders are discussed.

Funciones ejecutivas en niños escolarizados con alta y baja creatividad / Executive functions in School-aged Children with high and low Creativity

Resumen Objetivo: El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo analizar el perfil de funcionamiento ejecutivo característico en niños creativos. Método: Participaron 200 niños y niñas escolarizados de la provincia de Entre Ríos, República Argentina, seleccionados por medio de un muestreo intencional. La creatividad se evaluó por medio de la prueba de figuras del Test de Pensamiento Creativo de Torrance (TTCT), Forma A y la prueba verbal CREA C, inteligencia creativa. Como medida de las Funciones Ejecutivas (FE), se emplearon diferentes pruebas para valorar cada dominio: (1) subtest de memoria de trabajo del WISC IV; (2) Stroop, test de colores y palabras, para inhibición; (3) WCST computarizado, para flexibilidad cognitiva reactiva y Fluidez verbal y Five Point Test para fluidez cognitiva espontánea, y (4) Laberintos de Porteus para valorar la planificación. Para estudiar perfiles de funcionamiento ejecutivo se realizaron MANCOVAS ingresando la inteligencia como covariable. Resultados: Los resultados del presente estudio sugieren la existencia de un perfil de FE en niños creativos en función de su desempeño en la prueba de figuras del TTCT (F de Hotelling (7, 90) = 3.404; p = .003, η2 parcial = .21) y del CREA C (F de Hotelling (7, 98) = 8.831; p < .001, η2 parcial = .39). Conclusión: Los hallazgos del presente estudio muestran que los niños con mayor creatividad, tanto en tareas de dibujo como en tareas verbales, presentan un perfil de FE caracterizado por una mayor capacidad de memoria de trabajo, inhibición y flexibilidad cognitiva espontánea. Sin embargo, parecería que la naturaleza de la tarea es un factor que podría modular la contribución de los procesos cognitivos de alto orden al potencial creativo.

Abstract Objective: The objective of this study is to analyze the executive functioning profile, characteristic in creative children. Method: The participants were 200 school children from the province of Entre Ríos, Argentina, selected through intentional sampling. Creativity was assessed using the figure test of Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT), Form A and the CREA C verbal test, creative intelligence. To measure executive functions (EF), different tests were used to assess each domain: (1) WISC IV Working Memory Subtest; (2) Stroop Color and Word Test for inhibition; (3) computerized WCST for reactive cognitive flexibility and verbal fluency, the Five Point Test for spontaneous cognitive fluency, and finally; (4) Porteus Maze test to assess planning. Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVAS) was performed to study executive functioning profiles, entering intelligence as a covariate. Results: The study results suggest the existence of an EF profile in creative children based on their performance in the TTCT figure test (Hotelling's F (7, 90) = 3.404, p = .003, η2 partial = 0.21) and from CREA C (Hotelling's F (7, 98) = 8.831; p < 0.001, η2 partial = 0.39). Conclusions: The findings of this study show that children with greater creativity, both in drawing and verbal tasks, show an EF profile characterized by a greater capacity for working memory, inhibition, and spontaneous cognitive flexibility. However, due to the task's nature, the high-order cognitive processes could contribute in a greater or lesser extent to creative potential.

[Formula: see text] A hierarchical model of cognitive flexibility in children: Extending the relationship between flexibility, creativity and academic achievement.

We conducted two empirical studies to (1) explore the latent structure of cognitive flexibility in children as measured by performance-based tasks, (2) analyze the contribution of working memory (WM) and inhibition to reactive and spontaneous flexibility, and (3) examine the contribution of the different flexibility components to academic skills (i.e., reading comprehension and writing) and creativity. In S1 (n = 112 8- to 12-year-old children), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed best fit for the two-factor solution with reactive flexibility (RF) and spontaneous flexibility (SF) as separate but related components. When considering the joint contribution of WM and inhibition to both cognitive flexibility components, it was found that WM and inhibition contributed to SF, whereas only inhibition contributed to RF. Besides, only SF proved to be a significant predictor of writing and reading comprehension by using a latent-variable structural equation approach (SEM). In S2 (n = 177 8- to 13-year-old children), hierarchical regressions and SEM models showed consistently that the flexibility component in relation to creativity deals with the ability to generate diverse responses driven by internal stimuli (i.e., spontaneous flexibility). Taken together, these results suggest that cognitive flexibility is not a unified construct. Besides, the close relationship between SF and creativity and academic skills raise the question whether considering SF as a higher-level form of cognitive flexibility (different from a lower-level shifting skill) could be an interesting approach for the study of cognitive flexibility in children.

Computerized versus manual versions of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Implications with typically developing and ADHD children.

The aims of Study 1 (S1) were (a) to compare the task performance of 361 typically developing (TD) children aged 7 to 12 years, according to the mode of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) administration (manual vs. computerized) and b) to examine the contributions of executive functions (EFs) (i.e., working memory [WM], shifting and inhibition) to each WCST version. The objectives of Study 2 (S2) were (a) to study the comparability of the results obtained from the manual version to the results from the computer version in 43 children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and (b) to compare task performance on both versions between children with ADHD and TD children. The effect of age was only significant for the manual WCST. Regression analyses revealed that WM and shifting contributed to manual WCST performance, whereas WM and inhibition contributed to the performance on the computer version. We observed differences depending on the WCST mode of administration, as better scores for the manual version were recorded for both TD children and children with ADHD, despite similar performance on tasks involving other EFs. Additionally, children with ADHD performed worse than TD children on both versions. Our findings suggest that verbal face-to-face interactions would play a significant role in supporting children's abilities to solve novel situations characterized by uncertainty.

Efectos del Maltrato en la Neurocognición. Un Estudio en Niños Maltratados Institucionalizados y no Institucionalizados / Effects of mistreatment on neurocognition: A study on institutionalized and noninstitutionalized children who have suffered mistreatment / Efeitos do Maltrato na Neurocognição. Um estudo em crianças maltratadas institucionalizadas e não institucionalizadas

Resumen (analítico): Los objetivos del presente estudio fueron: (i) analizar las diferencias en el desempeño de un protocolo neurocognitivo en niños y niñas que experimentaron maltrato en comparación con niños y niñas que no lo sufrieron; y (ii) examinar si existen diferencias entre niños y niñas víctimas de maltrato, institucionalizados y no institucionalizados. Evaluamos a 30 niños y niñas con trauma temprano (11 institucionalizados y 19 no institucionalizados) y 24 controles de 7 a 12 años de edad. Empleamos el WISC IV, el Tomal, el Test de la Mirada, el Test de Metidas de Pata y la Escala Scared. Encontramos diferencias significativas entre los niños y niñas maltratados y no maltratados en todos los dominios analizados. Además, los niños y niñas maltratados institucionalizados obtuvieron un rendimiento inferior en CI respecto de sus pares maltratados no institucionalizados. La experiencia de estrés vivida en forma temprana, facilitaría un neurodesarrollo caracterizado por deficiencias en aspectos cognitivos y emocionales.

Abstract (analytical): The purpose of this study is: (i) to analyze the differences in the application of a neurocognitive protocol for children that have suffered maltreatment compared to children who have not suffered abuse; and (ii) to examine if there are any differences between institutionalized and non-institutionalized children who have suffered mistreatment. A total of 30 seven- to twelveyear-old children who suffered mistreatment during early childhood (11 institutionalized and 19 noninstitutionalized) and 24 children in a control group were assessed. The WISC IV, the TOMAL, Eyes Test and Faux Pas Recognition Test and the SCARED scale were employed. Significant differences were found between abused and non-abused children in every aspect that was analyzed. Furthermore, abused institutionalized children have shown a dramatically lower performance in their IQ tests compared to non-institutionalized children who were abused. Early stress experiences seem to produce a neurodevelopment characterized by deficiencies in terms of cognitive and emotional aspects.

Resumo (analítico): Os objetivos do presente estudo foram (i) analisar as diferenças no desempenho de um protocolo neurocognitivo em crianças que experimentaram maltrato em comparação com crianças que não apresentaram e (ii) examinar se existem diferenças entre crianças maltratadas de forma institucionalizadas e não institucionalizadas. Avaliaram-se 30 crianças com traumas nos primeiros anos de vida (11 institucionalizadas e 19 não institucionalizadas) e 24 com controles de 7 a 12 anos de idade. Foi utilizado o WISC IV, o TOMAL, o Teste do Olhar, o Teste de "metidas de pata" e a Escala SCARED. Encontraram-se diferenças significativas entre as crianças maltratadas e não maltratadas em todos os dominios analisados. Ademais, as crianças maltratadas de forma institucionalizada obtiveram um rendimento inferior em CI em relação ao seus pares maltrados de forma não institucionalizada. A experiencia de stress vivida desde cedo facilitaria o desenvolvimento neurológico caracterizado por deficiências em aspectos cognitivos e emocionais.

Funciones ejecutivas y práctica de ajedrez: un estudio en niños escolarizados / Executive functions and playing chess practice: a study conducted with schoolchildren

Resumen Objetivo: Diversas investigaciones han demostrado los beneficios del ajedrez para el desarrollo cognitivo. Sin embargo, son escasos los estudios que han analizado el efecto del ajedrez en las Fun ciones Ejecutivas (FE) con base en un modelo que evalúe cada uno de los componentes del constructo, el fin del presente estudio fue analizar las diferencias de rendimiento cognitivo en tareas que valoran las FE de memoria de trabajo, inhibición, flexibilidad cognitiva y planificación entre niños practicantes de ajedrez y no practicantes. Método: A través de un estudio de tipo ex post facto de corte transversal, con una muestra seleccionada a través de un muestreo no probabilístico intencional, empleando el Análisis Multivariado de Varianza (MANOVA) para analizar las dife rencias de rendimiento cognitivo según la práctica de ajedrez. Se evaluaron 65 niños escolarizados de 8 a 12 años, de ambos sexos divididos en dos grupos de acuerdo a la práctica de ajedrez: (1) 30 niños practicantes activos y (2) 35 niños sin ninguna experiencia con el ajedrez. Resultados: El MANOVA reveló diferencias significativas según la práctica de ajedrez, en todas las FE analizadas a favor de los niños practicantes. Estos datos sugieren que el ajedrez podría emplearse como una estrategia efectiva para favorecer el desarrollo de los procesos ejecutivos en la niñez. Se discuten los resultados en función de sus implicancias clínicas y educativas. Conclusión: Para la realización de futuras investigaciones sería relevante estudiar el efecto de la práctica de ajedrez en las FE en poblaciones adolescentes y adultas, para comprobar si la experticia y la edad podrían explicar, en parte, las variaciones individuales de funcionamiento ejecutivo según la práctica de ajedrez.

Abstract Objective: Research has demonstrated the benefits of chess for cognitive development. However, few studies have analyzed the effect of chess on the Executive Functions (FE) based on a model that evaluates each of the components of the construct, the purpose of this study was to analyze the differences in cognitive performance in tasks which assess work memory, inhibition, cogni tive flexibility, and planning between child chess practitioners and non-practitioners. Method: Through an ex post facto cross-sectional study, using a sample selected through an intentional non-probabilistic sampling, using the Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) to analyze differences in cognitive performance according to the practice of Chess. Sixty-five schoolchildren aged 8 to 12 years old, of both sexes were divided into two groups according to the chess prac tice: (1) 30 active child practitioners and (2) 35 children with no experience with chess. Results: MANOVA revealed significant differences according to chess practice, in all FE analyzed in favor of practicing children. These data suggest that chess could be used as an effective strategy to favor the development of executive processes in childhood. The results are discussed according to their clinical and educational implications. Conclusion: In order to carry out future research, it would be relevant to study the effect of chess practice on EFs in adolescent and adult populations, in order to verify if the experience and age could explain, in part, the individual variations of execu tive functioning according to practice of chess.

Test de pensamiento creativo de torrance (TTCT) - Verbal Forma B: Normas para adolescentes y adultos jóvenes argentinos / Torrance test of creative thinking (TTCT) ­ Verbal Form B: Normative data for argentinian adolescents and young adults

El TTCT Verbal es un instrumento que permite valorar la creatividad en niños y adultos a través de la fluidez, flexibilidad y originalidad, así como mediante una puntuación total. El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo establecer baremos para el TTCT Verbal en adolescentes y adultos jóvenes con el fin de poder utilizar el instrumento con propósitos diagnósticos y en ambientes educativos. La Forma B del TTCT Verbal, fue administrada a 432 sujetos (236 mujeres y 196 varones) de la provincia de Entre Ríos, Argentina, de entre 15 a 24 años de edad, de ambos sexos. Para estudiar el efecto de la edad, el sexo y su interacción se empleó MANOVA bifactorial. Los baremos, que se establecen por primera vez en Argentina, pueden ser de utilidad para la evaluación de la creatividad y la detección de las habilidades creativas en estudiantes.

The Verbal TTCT is an instrument that allows assessing creativity in children and adults through the Fluency, Flexibility and Originality abilities, as well as through a total score. The present work aims to establish normative data for the Verbal TTCT in adolescents and young adults in order to be able to use the instrument for diagnostic purposes and in educational settings. The verbal TTCT, form B was administered to 432 subjects of both sexes (236 women and 196 male) aged 15-24 of Entre Ríos, Argentina. Bifactorial MANOVA was used in order to study the effect of age, sex and their interaction over creativity. The norms, which are established for the first time in Argentina, may be useful for the assessment of creativity and the recognition of creative abilities in students.

A structural equation modeling of executive functions, IQ and mathematical skills in primary students: Differential effects on number production, mental calculus and arithmetical problems.

Though the relationship between executive functions (EFs) and mathematical skills has been well documented, little is known about how both EFs and IQ differentially support diverse math domains in primary students. Inconsistency of results may be due to the statistical techniques employed, specifically, if the analysis is conducted with observed variables, i.e., regression analysis, or at the latent level, i.e., structural equation modeling (SEM). The current study explores the contribution of both EFs and IQ in mathematics through an SEM approach. A total of 118 8- to 12-year-olds were administered measures of EFs, crystallized (Gc) and fluid (Gf) intelligence, and math abilities (i.e., number production, mental calculus and arithmetical problem-solving). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) offered support for the three-factor solution of EFs: (1) working memory (WM), (2) shifting, and (3) inhibition. Regarding the relationship among EFs, IQ and math abilities, the results of the SEM analysis showed that (i) WM and age predict number production and mental calculus, and (ii) shifting and sex predict arithmetical problem-solving. In all of the SEM models, EFs partially or totally mediated the relationship between IQ, age and math achievement. These results suggest that EFs differentially supports math abilities in primary-school children and is a more significant predictor of math achievement than IQ level.

Inteligencia y creatividad: correlatos entre los constructos a través de dos estudios empíricos / Intelligence and Creativity: Correlates among the Constructs through Two Empirical Studies

En el presente trabajo, se examina la relación entre la inteligencia, desde el enfoque de Cattell, y la creatividad, desde la perspectiva del pensamiento divergente, a través de dos estudios empíricos. En el estudio uno (E1), se analizó la relación entre la inteligencia fluida (gf y la creatividad figurativa en una muestra de 359 niños de 8 a 14 años de edad, encontrándose una asociación entre gf y todos los indicadores de la creatividad a excepción de la dimensión elaboración. En el estudio dos (E2), se investigó la relación entre la inteligencia cristalizada (gc) y gf y la creatividad verbal en una muestra de 120 adolescentes de 15 a 18 años, hallándose, por un lado, una asociación positiva entre la inteligencia y la creatividad verbal y, por otro lado, que gc es el aspecto de la inteligencia que predice la creatividad verbal. Los resultados de ambos estudios apoyan la hipótesis que sostiene que la creatividad y la inteligencia son constructos separados que se superponen en algunos aspectos y sugieren que las habilidades intelectuales (gc vs. gf) se asocian selectivamente a los diferentes tipos de creatividad (verbal vs. figurativa) y sus indicadores.

The present study describes the association between Intelligence and Creativity, considered from Cattell's approach and divergent thinking respectively, and by means of two empirical studies. The first study (S1), analyzed the relationship between fluid intelligence (gf) and figural creativity in 359 children from 8 to 14 years old, finding an association between gf and every creativity indicator except for elaboration. The second study (S2), evaluated the correlation between crystallized intelligence (gc) and gf and verbal creativity in a sample consisted of 120 adolescents between ages 15 and 18 years, showing a positive association between intelligence and verbal creativity and asserting gc as the trait of the intelligence which predicts verbal creativity. Results from both studies support the hypothesis that assumes that creativity and intelligence are separated constructs which overlap in some aspects, and suggest that intellectual skills (gc vs. gf) are selectively associated with the different types of creativity (verbal vs. figural) and their indicators.

Consecuencias de la exposición prenatal al alcohol: desarrollo histórico de la investigación y evolución de las recomendaciones / Consequences of prenatal exposure to alcohol: Historical development of the research and evolution of the recommendations

Objetivo: diversos estudios señalan un déficit y una demanda de información entre distintos profesionales de la salud en relación con las características de los trastornos vinculados a la exposición prenatal al alcohol y su prevención. Este documento busca hacer una reflexión sobre los aspectos más relevantes por considerar en la detección y el manejo del consumo de alcohol durante la gestación.Materiales y métodos: con base en la revisión de la evolución histórica de la investigación sobre los trastornos vinculados a la exposición prenatal al alcohol se da respuesta a las siguientes preguntas: 1) ¿Cuáles son los criterios diagnósticos actuales de los trastornos del espectro alcohólico fetal (TEAF)?, 2) ¿cuál es la prevalencia del síndrome de alcoholismo fetal (SAF) y otros TEAF?, 3) ¿cuál ha sido la evolución de las recomendaciones internacionales respecto al consumo de alcohol durante la gestación?, 4) ¿qué estrategias de prevención existen actualmente? Para esto se realiza una extensa revisión de la investigación publicada a nivel internacional.Resultados: la investigación moderna respecto a la exposición prenatal al alcohol evidencia que esta puede dar lugar a un amplio espectro de problemas. Las dificultades para establecer una dosis de alcohol segura durante la gestación han conducido a la modificación progresiva de las recomendaciones respecto del consumo durante este periodo, desde el consumo moderado hasta la abstinencia.Conclusión: el impacto y la magnitud de esta problemática exigen el desarrollo de planes de prevención específicos. Su implementación demanda la formación continua de los profesionales que trabajan en cuidados periconcepcionales y perinatales.

Objective: Several studies point to a lack of information together with greater demand from healthcare providers regarding the characteristics of disorders associated with prenatal exposure to alcohol, and ways to prevent them. This paper is aimed at prompting reflection on the most relevant aspects that need to be considered in the detection and management of alcohol use during pregnancy.Materials and methods: The following questions may be answered from a review of the historical evolution of the research related to disorders associated with prenatal exposure to alcohol: 1. Which are the current diagnostic criteria of Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)? 2. What is the prevalence of Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) and other FASD? 3. How have international recommendations on alcohol use during pregnancy evolved? 4. What are the current prevention strategies? An extensive review of the international published research is conducted for this purpose.Results: Modern research on the topic reveals that prenatal exposure to alcohol may give rise to a wide spectrum of problems. The difficulty in establishing a safe dose of alcohol during pregnancy has resulted in a progressive revision of the recommendations regarding alcohol use during this period, ranging from moderate use to abstinence.Conclusion: The impact and size of this problem require the development of specific preventive strategies. Their implementation requires continuous training of practitioners charged with providing periconceptional and perinatal care.

Las funciones ejecutivas en la clínica neuropsicológica infantil / Executive functions in clinical child neuropsychology

Resumen En los últimos años, el estudio de las funciones ejecutivas (FE) asociado a diferentes trastornos del neurodesarrollo ha experimentado un notable auge en el ámbito de la neuropsicología infantil. En el presente artículo revisamos los principales modelos teóricos del funcionamiento ejecutivo en niños atendiendo a sus implicancias tanto para la valoración clínica como para la praxis educativa. En relación con sus bases neuroanatómicas se destacan los modelos neurofuncionales que ponen el acento en la fluida relación entre la corteza prefrontal (CPF) y las FE así como en la riqueza de conexiones entre la CPF y diferentes regiones corticales y estructuras subcorticales. Finalmente, examinamos los perfiles de funcionamiento ejecutivo en diferentes trastornos de la clínica neuropsicológica infantil. La integración de estos aportes permite comprender la heterogeneidad del déficit ejecutivo en trastornos infantiles que no necesariamente cursan con patología primaria de los lóbulos frontales.

Abstract Lately, the study of executive functions (EF) in different neurodevelop-mental disorders has been on the increase in the area of child neuropsychology. The present article analyses the primary theoretical models of executive functioning in children, concerning both clinical assessment and educational practice. In terms of EF neuroanatomical bases, it surpasses neurofunctional models which not only emphasize the fluid relation between the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the EF, but also the worthy connections between the PFC and different cortical regions and subcortical structures. Finally, we examine EF profiles regarding different clinical child neuropsychological disorders. The former contributions, allow the understanding of the heterogeneity of the executive deficit in child disorders that not certainly account for frontal lobes pathology.

Structure and invariance of executive functioning tasks across socioeconomic status: evidence from Spanish-speaking children

The aim of the present study was to analyze the latent structure of executive functions (EFs) in Spanishspeaking children and to test measurement invariance across socioeconomic status (SES). We sampled 248 children, aged 8 to 12, who were divided into two groups: 124 children from a medium socioeconomic status (MSS) and 124 children from a low socioeconomic status (LSS). We applied a neuropsychological battery consisting of various EF tasks and performed confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and multi-group CFA (MGCFA). CFA showed best fit for the three factor solution: (a) Working memory, (b) Cognitive flexibility, and (c) Inhibition. Moreover, the MGCFA revealed that the threefactor solution was invariant (configural, metric, and structural) across SES, allowing valid comparison between the groups (MSS and LSS) of factors. Finally, bifactorial MANOVA revealed a significant effect of SES and group age but not for the interaction between the two in the three EF dimensions indicative of quantitative group differences. Results are discussed in terms of the dimensional nature of the EF construct and the effects of SES on executive functioning (AU)

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A structural analysis of executive functions and socioeconomic status in school-age children: cognitive factors as effect mediators.

Socioeconomic status (SES) is a well-known predictor of cognitive achievement and executive functioning, although the underlying cognitive mediating processes remain unclear. The authors analyze the association between different socioeconomic indicators and the executive functions (EF) of schoolchildren and the possible cognitive mediating factors of this association. The sample included 254 children aged 7-12 years from different SES. The researchers employed a battery of tests to evaluate EF, including the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test task to measure intelligence, and the Matching Familiar Figures Test-20 to assess the reflexivity-impulsivity (R-I) cognitive style. The results indicate a significant effect of SES on all tested EF. Stepwise regression analysis showed that maternal education level and housing conditions were significant predictors of the majority of EF. Structural equation modeling showed that, although SES had effects on intelligence quotient (IQ), R-I cognitive style, and EF, the association between SES and EF is partly explained by cognitive impulsivity but not by IQ scores. Results are discussed in terms of the mediating cognitive variables that may explain the association between SES and EF and their implications for designing effective intervention programs in schools.

Análisis de la relación entre reflexividad-impulsividad y funciones ejecutivas en niños escolarizados mediante un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales / Using Structural Equation Models to Understand the Relationship between Reflexivity-Impulsivity and Executive Functions in School-Age Children

This study examined the relationship between Reflectivity-Impulsivity (RI) cognitive style and Executive Functions (EF) in 8 to 12 year-old school-age children. Besides, the relationships between these constructs and attention were analyzed to study possible mediator variables. The Matching Familiar Figures Test-20 (MFFT-20) to measure R-I style, the d2 test to measure attention, and neuropsychological "prefrontal" tasks to tap different domains of EF were administered. Results showed significant associations between R-I and executive functions. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) demonstrated a two-factor solution for the relationship between R-I an EF and support the notion that R-I and EF are differing but associated constructs. Moreover, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) showed that R-I had effects on attention and direct and indirect effects on EF through child attentional strategies. This result suggests the interpretation that a high degree of impulsivity impairs performance on EF and highlights the importance of enhancing reflective disposition in school settings (AU)

Se analizan las relaciones existentes entre el estilo cognitivo Reflexividad-Impulsividad (R-I) y las funciones ejecutivas (FE) en escolares de 8-12 años de edad. Asimismo se examina la relación entre estos constructos y la atención para estudiar las posibles variables mediadoras de esta asociación. Se administró el test de emparejamiento de figuras conocidas (MFFT-20) para medir la R-I, el test de atención d2 para valorar la atención, y tests neuropsicológicos sensibles al funcionamiento del córtex prefrontal para valorar las FE. Los resultados indican que existe una asociación significativa entre la R-I y el funcionamiento ejecutivo. El análisis factorial confirmatorio (AFC) de ajuste más satisfactorio señala a la R-I como un constructo asociado al desempeño ejecutivo pero separado. Además, los modelos de ecuaciones estructurales (SEM) brindan apoyo a la hipótesis que indica que la R-I tendría efectos directos sobre el desempeño ejecutivo, e indirectos a través de las estrategias atencionales empleadas. Los resultados sugieren que un alto grado de impulsividad cognitiva podría interferir en el desempeño ejecutivo y apuntan a la importancia de aumentar la disposición reflexiva en el ámbito educativo (AU)